The question “how do I apply for a PhD” assumes a single answer exists. It does not, and the difference is not cosmetic: what is correct in one country is out of place in another. Writing to an academic before applying is normal at Cambridge, which recommends it in as many words. Doing the same with an advertised Dutch vacancy misses the point that the advertisement already fixes both the project and the supervisor.
So the first step is not collecting documents. It is identifying the admissions model. There are three, and they do not follow national borders: two can coexist in one country, sometimes in one university.
Three models of doctoral admission
| Model | Who decides | Where it starts | Where you meet it |
|---|---|---|---|
| Programme-based | A departmental admissions committee | An application to a fixed deadline | The United States, structured programmes in Europe |
| Supervisor-led | The supervisor together with the department | Finding a supervisor and agreeing a subject | The United Kingdom, Germany, parts of Europe |
| Advertised position | The research group, as an employer | Answering a published vacancy | The Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, MSCA projects |
The United States: a committee selects, the department pays
Applications to American doctoral programmes go in to a fixed deadline and a committee decides. Berkeley describes the review as holistic: goals, relevant work or research experience, life experience, essays, letters of recommendation and academic records. You may apply to only one programme per admissions cycle, and the guidance is to begin gathering materials at least three months ahead.
Funding is built into admission rather than requested separately. EducationUSA states it plainly: working as a graduate teaching or research assistant in exchange for a tuition waiver and a stipend is very common at PhD level. The same page adds a point that changes tactics — professors in your department of interest play an important role in identifying and choosing funding recipients, so contacting them is worthwhile.
One practical consequence: a master's degree is often not required. Admission straight from a bachelor's is common, with the master's earned along the way.
The United Kingdom: the supervisor question and the studentship question
The British system separates two things applicants routinely conflate: admission and funding. Cambridge sets out the first directly — for a research degree you may need to identify a suitable supervisor before you apply, but for some courses the department appoints supervisors after making an offer and you cannot choose one in advance. The requirement is on the individual course page.
The same guidance carries a caution worth holding onto through any correspondence: interest from a potential supervisor does not guarantee an offer of a place, and the availability of a suitable supervisor is one of the factors a department weighs when considering an application.
Money is a separate competition. A funded studentship covers both the fee and living costs. UKRI sets minimums for studentships funded through its training grants: from 1 October 2026 the minimum stipend is £21,805 a year, and the minimum fee for the 2026 to 2027 academic year is £5,238. UKRI states that students cannot apply to it directly — you apply to the provider offering the studentship. One more clause matters to international applicants: UKRI contributes only up to the home fee rate, so you may have to make up the difference.
Continental Europe: you answer a vacancy
In the Netherlands, Sweden and Denmark the doctoral candidate is an employee. Study in NL describes a PhD as a minimum of four years of original research that is not regarded as study, and notes that candidates are often in paid employment. Study in Sweden is blunter still: when you apply for a PhD programme you are actually applying for a job. There are no tuition fees, and departments run admission themselves rather than through the national portal used for bachelor's and master's entry.
European project networks are a distinct case. Under MSCA Doctoral Networks, positions are advertised as vacancies on EURAXESS and carry their own rules: candidates must not hold a doctoral degree at the date of recruitment, nationality does not matter, but a mobility rule applies — in general you must not have resided or carried out your main activity in the country of the recruiting organisation for more than 12 months in the 36 immediately before recruitment.
Where a position is advertised, it is advertised only once the project has been funded. The vacancy list is therefore the list of openings that genuinely exist.
What goes into the application, and what the model changes
- An academic CV: education, research experience, projects, publications, conferences, teaching.
- A research proposal where you are putting forward your own subject. In the vacancy model it is usually not wanted: the project is already described.
- A statement of purpose or personal statement: why this subject, this group and this programme.
- Transcripts and degree documents, sometimes with formal recognition of the qualification.
- References from people who know your research work, not only your coursework.
- A writing sample, in many humanities and social science programmes.
- Proof of language where the research will not be conducted in your first language.
- An interview with the group, at the final stage in most systems.
Publications help, but their absence does not close the door: at the point of application most candidates do not have any. What counts is demonstrable research experience — a master's thesis, a part in a project, command of the methods the group uses.
Timing
The model sets the calendar. Programme-based admission runs to fixed dates: Berkeley gives a window from late September to December, and as late as February depending on the programme, with decisions from late January through June. Vacancy-based admission runs all year: Study in Sweden notes that some departments advertise regularly, others only once or twice a year.
Funding is counted separately. EducationUSA warns that deadlines for scholarships and grants can fall as early as 18 months before the programme starts. That, not the admissions deadline, is the real point at which preparation begins.
Frequently asked questions
Do I need a master's degree to apply for a PhD?
It depends on the system. In continental Europe and the United Kingdom generally yes: Study in NL lists a recognised master's degree among the admission criteria. In the United States admission straight from a bachelor's is common, with the master's earned during the doctoral programme.
In which systems must I contact a supervisor before applying?
In those that follow the supervisor-led model: many UK research degrees and most German routes. In the US programme-based model an email is useful but not required, and in the vacancy model the supervisor comes with the project. The exact requirement is stated on the individual course page.
In which admissions model is a research proposal required?
In the one where you propose your own subject — the supervisor-led model and some programme-based ones. If you are answering an advertised position, the project is already described and what is wanted is evidence that you can carry out that particular piece of work.
What does a fully funded PhD actually mean?
Different things in different systems: a salary under an employment contract, a scholarship, a studentship covering fee and stipend, or an assistantship. It is set out separately in “Fully Funded PhD in Europe”.
Can I apply in several countries at once?
Yes, but these are parallel systems with different materials and different deadlines. An application to a US programme and a response to a Dutch vacancy are different documents, and one pack cannot be reused for both.
Are publications needed at the point of applying for a PhD?
As a rule no: at this stage most candidates have none. What counts is demonstrable research experience: a master's thesis, a part in a project, command of the methods the group works with.
How a doctorate works in terms of status and money is set out separately in a PhD in Europe is a job. How to judge fit with a group and write the first email is covered in finding a PhD supervisor. The EDMONT approach to doctoral cases is described on the PhD page.