One word covers two systems that have very little in common. In continental Europe the candidate is usually hired: a salary, tax, and a place on the university payroll. In the United Kingdom and the United States the candidate remains a student, for whom the university covers tuition and to whom it pays a stipend. Which system you are applying into determines everything, from where the openings are advertised to what belongs in the application.
Continental Europe: you are hired
In the Netherlands a doctoral candidate is employed by the university: salary, tax, social security, pension contributions, holiday. A position appears on the vacancy boards only once the project behind it has been funded — until then there is nothing to pay a salary from.
In Sweden a doctoral candidate is a student and an employee at the same time: a contract of four to five years with a salary, paid holiday, parental rights and pension contributions. Up to a fifth of the time may go on teaching and departmental work. Denmark also classes doctoral candidates as employees, with pay set by collective agreement.
Germany: the place is found with a professor
Germany works differently again. Doctoral study at a public university charges no tuition for at least the first six semesters, but the place itself has to be found, usually by reaching an agreement with a supervisor. From there the funding can take more than one form.
- A research assistant contract on the TV-L public pay scale, typically grade E13 and often part-time.
- A scholarship — the DAAD doctoral scholarship, for instance, a monthly payment plus a travel allowance.
- A structured programme with an intake and deadlines, closer to conventional admission but with far fewer places.
The UK and the US: a student who is paid
In the United Kingdom the doctoral candidate remains a student and tuition exists. What differs is who pays it. A funded studentship covers both the fee and living costs: for 2026/27 UKRI set the minimum stipend at £21,805 a year and the minimum fee at £5,238. Without a studentship the cost falls to the candidate.
In the United States, strong doctoral programmes fund almost everyone they admit: a teaching or research assistantship waives tuition and provides a stipend, typically between $23,400 and $40,000 a year according to EducationUSA. The large federal schemes such as the NSF fellowship, however, are open only to US citizens and permanent residents, which leaves departmental funding as the route for an international candidate.
| System | Status of the candidate | Who pays | How a place is found |
|---|---|---|---|
| Netherlands | Employee of the university | The university, as salary under a contract | Applying to an advertised vacancy |
| Sweden, Denmark | Student and employee at once | The university, as salary under collective agreement | Applying to vacancies, advertised year-round |
| Germany | Depends on the arrangement | A research assistant contract or a scholarship | An agreement reached with a supervisor |
| United Kingdom | Student | A funded studentship covering fee and living costs | Applying for a studentship or to a programme |
| United States | Student | The department, through an assistantship with a fee waiver | Applying to a doctoral programme |
Is it hard to get in
It is hard, but not in the way undergraduate admission is hard. There is no competition on marks. Two things decide it: a supervisor who wants you, and money that has already been committed. A position is not opened until the project is paid for, and where no suitable vacancy exists the remaining route is to put a project of your own to a group capable of finding funding for it.
This is closer to being hired than to being admitted. People fail here not on weak marks but because they never showed the research group what they were needed for.
Why it is settled at master's level
A funded position goes to someone who already has research experience in the group's field: a master's thesis, a publication, a part in a project. That accumulates over years before the application. The choice of master's — the country, the university and above all the research group and the supervisor — therefore determines whether a doctorate remains available at all.
A master's chosen on the strength of a programme title and a ranking position often closes that route: two years pass and nothing remains that an application could point to.
Frequently asked questions
Do you have to pay for a doctorate in Europe?
In continental Europe usually not: the candidate is hired on a salary. German public universities charge no tuition for at least the first six semesters. In the United Kingdom tuition exists, but a funded studentship covers it.
Where are positions advertised?
On university vacancy pages and on EURAXESS, the pan-European portal; in the Netherlands, on AcademicTransfer. A position is published only once its project has been funded, which makes the vacancy list a list of the openings that genuinely exist.
Is a master's degree required?
In continental Europe and the United Kingdom, generally yes. In the United States admission straight from a bachelor's is common, with the master's earned along the way through the doctoral programme.
How long does it take?
In Denmark usually three years and 180 ECTS. In Sweden the contract runs four to five years, with part of the time given to teaching. In the Netherlands and Germany the length follows the project and its funding.
What counts for more, marks or research experience?
Experience in the group's field. Marks establish the groundwork, but people are taken on for their ability to carry a particular project, and that is shown through work rather than through a grade average.
Can you apply without a supervisor?
If there is an open vacancy, yes — you apply to it, and the supervisor comes with the project. Where there is no vacancy, you first have to find a group and persuade it to seek funding for your subject.
EDMONT supports undergraduate and master's admission; we do not place candidates in doctoral positions. But it is at master's level that the question of whether a doctorate stays open is settled, and with anyone considering an academic career we raise it early.